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my knowledge does not extend to that field

  • 1 extender

    v.
    1 to spread (out) (tela, plano, alas).
    me extendió la mano she held out her hand to me
    2 to spread (mantequilla).
    3 to extend, to widen.
    extendieron el castigo a todos los alumnos the punishment was extended to include all the pupils
    María extendió el mapa Mary extended the map.
    María extendió el discurso Mary extended the discourse.
    El banco extendió el plazo The bank extended the deadline.
    4 to draw up (document).
    le extenderé un cheque I'll write you (out) a check, I'll make out a check to you
    5 to outstretch, to spread-eagle.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ ENTENDER], like link=entender entender
    1 (mapa, papel) to spread (out), open (out)
    2 (brazo etc) to stretch (out); (alas) to spread
    3 (mantequilla etc) to spread
    4 (documento) to draw up; (cheque) to make out; (pasaporte, certificado) to issue
    5 figurado (hacer mayor) to extend, enlarge
    6 figurado (idea, creencia, noticia) to spread
    1 (durar) to extend, last
    ■ el periodo que estudiaremos se extiende entre los siglos XVIII y XIX the period we're going to study goes from the 18th century to the 19th century
    2 (terreno) to stretch
    3 figurado (difundirse) to spread, extend
    4 figurado (al hablar) to enlarge, expand, go into detail
    * * *
    verb
    •
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=desplegar) [+ manta, mantel] to spread out; [+ alas] to spread, stretch out; [+ brazo, pierna, tentáculo] to stretch out

    extendió el mapa encima de la mesa — he opened out o spread out the map on the table

    la corriente del Golfo extiende su acción beneficiosa hasta el norte de Europa — the beneficial effects of the Gulf Stream reach as far as northern Europe

    extender la mano a algn — to hold out one's hand to sb, extend one's hand to sb frm

    2) (=esparcir) [+ sellos, arena] to lay out, spread out

    extendimos el tabaco al sol — we laid o spread the tobacco out in the sun

    3) (=untar) [+ crema, mantequilla] to spread
    4) (=difundir) [+ noticia, rumor] to spread; [+ influencia, poder] to extend
    5) frm (=rellenar) [+ cheque, receta] to make out, write out; [+ certificado] to issue

    extendí un cheque a su nombre — I made out o wrote out a cheque to him

    6) (=ampliar) [+ oferta, contrato] to extend
    7) (Téc) [+ alambre] to draw
    2.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) <periódico/mapa> to open... up o out
    2) < brazos> to stretch out; < alas> to spread
    3) <pintura/mantequilla> to spread
    4) ( ampliar) <poderes/influencia> to broaden, extend; <plazo/permiso> to extend
    5) (frml) <factura/cheque> to issue (frml); < receta> to make out, write; <documento/escritura> to issue

    ¿a nombre de quién extiendo el cheque? — to whom do I make the check payable?

    2.
    extenderse v pron
    a) (propagarse, difundirse) fuego/epidemia/noticia to spread
    b) (abarcar, ocupar) territorio stretch
    c) influencia/autoridad to extend
    a) época/período to last
    b) (en explicación, discurso)

    se extendió demasiado en or sobre ese tema — he spent too much time on that subject

    ¿quisiera extenderse en or sobre ese punto? — would you like to expand on that point?

    * * *
    = broaden, extend, lengthen, widen, stretch, unfold, stretch out.
    Ex. The program's purpose is to enable U.S. librarians and publishers to enrich and broaden their career experience through a short period of overseas service.
    Ex. The term author is normally extended to include writers, illustrator, performers, producers, translators, and others with some intellectual or artistic responsibility for a work.
    Ex. It is needless to lengthen the list.
    Ex. The quality of machine indexing can be enhanced by widening the indexing field.
    Ex. He glanced casually at the ill-balanced frontages of the buildings ahead that stretched on and on until they melded in an indistinguishable mass of gray at Laurence Street.
    Ex. This algorithm handles cyclic graphs without unfolding the cycles nor looping through them.
    Ex. Everyone knows the benefits of stretching out both before and after your workouts.
    ----
    * cada vez más extendido = spreading.
    * extender la influencia = spread + influence.
    * extender la mano = put out + Posesivo + hand, reach out, put forth + Posesivo + hand.
    * extender la mano para coger algo = hand + reach for.
    * extenderse = spread (over/throughout), gain + currency, spread over, take off, catch on, ricochet, sweep through, sprawl.
    * extenderse a = pervade.
    * extenderse a modo de abanico = fan out.
    * extenderse como el fuego = spread like + wildfire.
    * extenderse como un reguero de pólvora = spread like + wildfire.
    * extenderse de... a... = stretch from... to....
    * extenderse por todas partes = reach + far and wide, extend + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * extenderse por todos lados = extend + far and wide, reach + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * extender un cheque = issue + check.
    * que se extiende sobre una zona muy amplia = sprawling.
    * reputación + extenderse = reputation + spread.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) <periódico/mapa> to open... up o out
    2) < brazos> to stretch out; < alas> to spread
    3) <pintura/mantequilla> to spread
    4) ( ampliar) <poderes/influencia> to broaden, extend; <plazo/permiso> to extend
    5) (frml) <factura/cheque> to issue (frml); < receta> to make out, write; <documento/escritura> to issue

    ¿a nombre de quién extiendo el cheque? — to whom do I make the check payable?

    2.
    extenderse v pron
    a) (propagarse, difundirse) fuego/epidemia/noticia to spread
    b) (abarcar, ocupar) territorio stretch
    c) influencia/autoridad to extend
    a) época/período to last
    b) (en explicación, discurso)

    se extendió demasiado en or sobre ese tema — he spent too much time on that subject

    ¿quisiera extenderse en or sobre ese punto? — would you like to expand on that point?

    * * *
    = broaden, extend, lengthen, widen, stretch, unfold, stretch out.

    Ex: The program's purpose is to enable U.S. librarians and publishers to enrich and broaden their career experience through a short period of overseas service.

    Ex: The term author is normally extended to include writers, illustrator, performers, producers, translators, and others with some intellectual or artistic responsibility for a work.
    Ex: It is needless to lengthen the list.
    Ex: The quality of machine indexing can be enhanced by widening the indexing field.
    Ex: He glanced casually at the ill-balanced frontages of the buildings ahead that stretched on and on until they melded in an indistinguishable mass of gray at Laurence Street.
    Ex: This algorithm handles cyclic graphs without unfolding the cycles nor looping through them.
    Ex: Everyone knows the benefits of stretching out both before and after your workouts.
    * cada vez más extendido = spreading.
    * extender la influencia = spread + influence.
    * extender la mano = put out + Posesivo + hand, reach out, put forth + Posesivo + hand.
    * extender la mano para coger algo = hand + reach for.
    * extenderse = spread (over/throughout), gain + currency, spread over, take off, catch on, ricochet, sweep through, sprawl.
    * extenderse a = pervade.
    * extenderse a modo de abanico = fan out.
    * extenderse como el fuego = spread like + wildfire.
    * extenderse como un reguero de pólvora = spread like + wildfire.
    * extenderse de... a... = stretch from... to....
    * extenderse por todas partes = reach + far and wide, extend + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * extenderse por todos lados = extend + far and wide, reach + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * extender un cheque = issue + check.
    * que se extiende sobre una zona muy amplia = sprawling.
    * reputación + extenderse = reputation + spread.

    * * *
    extender [E8 ]
    vt
    A ‹periódico/mapa› to open … up o out
    extendió la toalla sobre la arena he spread the towel out on the sand
    B ‹brazos› to stretch out; ‹alas› to spread
    le extendió la mano he held out his hand to her
    C ‹pintura/mantequilla/pegamento› to spread
    extender bien la crema por todo el rostro y cuello spread the cream over the face and neck
    D (ampliar) ‹poderes/influencia› to broaden, extend; ‹plazo/permiso› to extend
    quiere extender su esfera de influencia he wants to broaden o extend o expand his sphere of influence
    se habla de extender estas reformas a los institutos privados there is talk of these reforms being extended to (apply to) private schools
    E ( frml); ‹factura› to issue ( frml); ‹cheque› to issue ( frml), to make out, write, write out; ‹receta› to make out, write; ‹documento/escritura› to issue
    ¿a nombre de quién extiendo el cheque? to whom do I make the check payable?, who do I make o write the check out to?
    1 (propagarse, difundirse) «fuego/epidemia» to spread; «tumor» to spread; «noticia/costumbre/creencia» to spread
    la humedad se ha extendido a la habitación de al lado the dampness has spread to the next room
    2 (abarcar, ocupar) «territorio» stretch; «influencia/autoridad» to extend
    se extiende hasta el río it extends o stretches down to the river
    inmensos campos de olivos se extendían ante nuestros ojos ( liter); vast olive groves stretched out before us
    extenderse A algo to extend TO sth
    mis conocimientos no se extienden a ese campo my knowledge does not extend to that field
    1 «época/período» to last
    el período que se extiende hasta la Revolución Francesa the period up to the French Revolution
    el invierno se ha extendido mucho this winter has gone on o lasted a long time, it has been a long winter
    2
    (en una explicación, un discurso): ya nos hemos extendido bastante sobre este tema we have already spent enough time on this subject
    ¿quisiera extenderse sobre ese punto? would you like to expand o enlarge on that point?
    * * *

     

    extender ( conjugate extender) verbo transitivo
    1 ‹periódico/mapa› to open … up o out;
    ‹mantel/toalla› to spread … out
    2 ‹ brazos› to stretch out;
    ‹ alas› to spread;

    3 ‹pintura/mantequilla› to spread
    4 ( ampliar) ‹poderes/plazo/permiso› to extend
    5 (frml) ‹factura/cheque/escritura› to issue;
    ‹ receta› to make out, write
    extenderse verbo pronominal
    1 ( en el espacio)
    a) [fuego/epidemia/noticia] to spread

    b) [territorio/propiedad] to stretch;


    c) [influencia/autoridad] to extend;

    extenderse a algo to extend to sth
    2 ( en el tiempo)
    a) [época/debate] to last

    b) [ persona]:


    ¿quisiera extenderse sobre ese punto? would you like to expand on that point?
    extender verbo transitivo
    1 to extend
    (un territorio) to enlarge
    2 (desplegar, estirar) to spread (out), open (out)
    (una mano, las piernas, etc) to stretch (out)
    3 (untar) to spread
    4 (expedir) (un cheque) to make out
    (un documento) to draw up
    (un certificado) to issue
    ' extender' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    alargar
    - ampliar
    - extensor
    - extensora
    - generalizar
    - repartir
    - tender
    English:
    enlarge
    - expand
    - extend
    - go
    - make out
    - open out
    - prolong
    - roll out
    - shoot out
    - spread
    - stretch
    - thrust out
    - unfold
    - write
    - write out
    - stick
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [tela, plano, periódico] to spread (out);
    [brazos, piernas] to stretch out; [alas] to spread (out);
    extendió el mantel sobre la hierba he spread the blanket (out) on the grass;
    me extendió la mano she held out her hand to me
    2. [mantequilla, pegamento, barniz] to spread;
    [objetos] to spread out
    3. [ampliar] to extend, to widen;
    extendieron el castigo a todos los alumnos the punishment was extended to include all the pupils
    4. [documento] to draw up;
    [cheque] to make out, to write (out); [certificado] to issue; [factura] to make out; [receta] to write (out);
    le extenderé un cheque I'll write you (out) a cheque, I'll make out a cheque to you
    5. [prolongar] to prolong, to extend
    6. [propagar] to spread;
    extender una creencia to spread a belief
    * * *
    v/t
    1 brazos stretch out; tela, papel spread out;
    me extendió la mano she held out her hand to me
    2 ( untar) spread
    3 ( ampliar) extend
    * * *
    extender {56} vt
    1) : to spread out, to stretch out
    2) : to broaden, to expand
    extender la influencia: to broaden one's influence
    3) : to draw up (a document), to write out (a check)
    * * *
    1. (repartir) to spread [pt. & pp. spread]
    2. (desplegar) to spread out
    3. (ampliar) to extend
    4. (brazo, etc) to stretch out

    Spanish-English dictionary > extender

  • 2 dominio

    m.
    1 control.
    2 authority, power.
    3 domain (territorio).
    4 mastery (conocimiento) (de arte, técnica).
    5 domain (computing).
    * * *
    1 (soberanía) dominion
    2 (poder) power, control
    3 (supremacía) supremacy
    4 (de conocimientos) mastery, good knowledge; (de un idioma) good command
    5 (territorio) domain
    \
    dominio de sí mismo self-control
    ejercer dominio to exert control
    ser del dominio público to be public knowledge
    * * *
    noun m.
    2) dominance, domination
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=control) control

    dominio de sí mismo, dominio sobre sí mismo — self-control

    2) (=conocimiento) command

    es impresionante su dominio del inglés — his command of o fluency in English is impressive

    ¡qué dominio tiene! — isn't he good at it?

    3) (=autoridad) authority ( sobre over)
    4) (=territorio) dominion
    5) (Educ) field, domain
    6) (Inform) domain
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( control) control
    b) (de idioma, tema) command

    se requiere perfecto dominio del inglés — fluent English o perfect command of English required

    c) (ámbito de ciencia, arte) sphere
    2)
    a) (Hist, Pol) dominion
    b) dominios masculino plural ( colonias) dominions (pl)
    * * *
    = area, dominance, realm, command, mastery, domain, domination, dominion, grip, pervasiveness, primacy, preserve, rule, sway.
    Ex. The area in which standards for bibliographic description have had the most impact is in catalogues and catalogue record data bases.
    Ex. The arrangements should also negotiate resistance to perceived 'American dominance', erode price differentials between Europe and the US, and permit each country to support its own online services.
    Ex. Nevertheless, this situation does not appropriately demonstrate what is normally conceived to be the realm of indexing systems.
    Ex. Businesses are using all of the new communicating technological developments to increase their command over the information they need.
    Ex. The library has proven to be an imperfect panacea, and the librarian has suffered a definite loss of mastery.
    Ex. The CRONOS data bank includes a FISH domain, with data on catches and fleet statistics, and the COMEXT data bank covers the external trade statistics of fisheries.
    Ex. He cautions, however, that this approach can also mean domination of one person by another.
    Ex. The author reviews the sources of information relating to the emigration of Indians to the various British dominions, colonies and other countries for the period 1830-1950.
    Ex. It is therefore often hard to escape the grip of the official phraseology for fear that, in doing so, the meaning of the material will be altered or lost.
    Ex. New technologies are leading to a gradual recognition of the importance of information and of its pervasiveness throughout society and the economy.
    Ex. The article is entitled 'The classification of literature in the Dewey Decimal Classification: the primacy of language and the taint of colonialism' = El artículo se titula "La clasificación de la literatura en la Clasificación Decimal de Dewey: la primacía del lenguaje y el daño del colonialismo".
    Ex. This article discusses the role of the librarian, who may view on-line as either status-enhancing or their own preserve.
    Ex. The British in Malaya used education as a divisive factor to prolong their rule, while the Americans in the Philippines adopted a 'Philippines for the Filipinos' policy = Los británicos en Malaya usaron la educación como un factor divisorio para prolongar su dominio, mientras los americanos en las Filipinas adoptaron una política de "Las Filipinas para los filipinos".
    Ex. During this period Africa was influenced by external forces as the Islamic states of the north extended their sway south.
    ----
    * afianzar el dominio sobre = tighten + Posesivo + grip on.
    * análisis de dominios del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * base de datos de dominio público = public domain database.
    * de dominio público = publicly owned [publicly-owned].
    * dominio completo = stranglehold.
    * dominio de las personas con más edad = senior power.
    * dominio del conocimiento = knowledge domain.
    * dominio de una lengua extranjera = language proficiency.
    * dominio perfecto = a fine art.
    * dominio público = public domain.
    * dominio total = stranglehold.
    * entrar dentro del dominio de = fall under + the umbrella of.
    * nivel de dominio medio = working knowledge.
    * nombre de dominio = domain name.
    * programa de dominio público = public domain software.
    * ser de dominio público = be public domain.
    * ser el dominio de = be the domain of.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( control) control
    b) (de idioma, tema) command

    se requiere perfecto dominio del inglés — fluent English o perfect command of English required

    c) (ámbito de ciencia, arte) sphere
    2)
    a) (Hist, Pol) dominion
    b) dominios masculino plural ( colonias) dominions (pl)
    * * *
    = area, dominance, realm, command, mastery, domain, domination, dominion, grip, pervasiveness, primacy, preserve, rule, sway.

    Ex: The area in which standards for bibliographic description have had the most impact is in catalogues and catalogue record data bases.

    Ex: The arrangements should also negotiate resistance to perceived 'American dominance', erode price differentials between Europe and the US, and permit each country to support its own online services.
    Ex: Nevertheless, this situation does not appropriately demonstrate what is normally conceived to be the realm of indexing systems.
    Ex: Businesses are using all of the new communicating technological developments to increase their command over the information they need.
    Ex: The library has proven to be an imperfect panacea, and the librarian has suffered a definite loss of mastery.
    Ex: The CRONOS data bank includes a FISH domain, with data on catches and fleet statistics, and the COMEXT data bank covers the external trade statistics of fisheries.
    Ex: He cautions, however, that this approach can also mean domination of one person by another.
    Ex: The author reviews the sources of information relating to the emigration of Indians to the various British dominions, colonies and other countries for the period 1830-1950.
    Ex: It is therefore often hard to escape the grip of the official phraseology for fear that, in doing so, the meaning of the material will be altered or lost.
    Ex: New technologies are leading to a gradual recognition of the importance of information and of its pervasiveness throughout society and the economy.
    Ex: The article is entitled 'The classification of literature in the Dewey Decimal Classification: the primacy of language and the taint of colonialism' = El artículo se titula "La clasificación de la literatura en la Clasificación Decimal de Dewey: la primacía del lenguaje y el daño del colonialismo".
    Ex: This article discusses the role of the librarian, who may view on-line as either status-enhancing or their own preserve.
    Ex: The British in Malaya used education as a divisive factor to prolong their rule, while the Americans in the Philippines adopted a 'Philippines for the Filipinos' policy = Los británicos en Malaya usaron la educación como un factor divisorio para prolongar su dominio, mientras los americanos en las Filipinas adoptaron una política de "Las Filipinas para los filipinos".
    Ex: During this period Africa was influenced by external forces as the Islamic states of the north extended their sway south.
    * afianzar el dominio sobre = tighten + Posesivo + grip on.
    * análisis de dominios del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * base de datos de dominio público = public domain database.
    * de dominio público = publicly owned [publicly-owned].
    * dominio completo = stranglehold.
    * dominio de las personas con más edad = senior power.
    * dominio del conocimiento = knowledge domain.
    * dominio de una lengua extranjera = language proficiency.
    * dominio perfecto = a fine art.
    * dominio público = public domain.
    * dominio total = stranglehold.
    * entrar dentro del dominio de = fall under + the umbrella of.
    * nivel de dominio medio = working knowledge.
    * nombre de dominio = domain name.
    * programa de dominio público = public domain software.
    * ser de dominio público = be public domain.
    * ser el dominio de = be the domain of.

    * * *
    A
    1 (control) control
    bajo el dominio árabe under Arab control o rule
    en ningún momento perdió el dominio de sí mismo at no time did he lose his self-control
    en pleno dominio de sus facultades in full command of her faculties
    para ampliar su dominio to extend their control o dominance
    el dominio de su país sobre los mares their country's naval supremacy
    2 (de un idioma, un tema) command
    su dominio de estas técnicas her command o mastery of these techniques
    se requiere perfecto dominio del inglés fluent English o perfect command of English required
    el escritor tiene un gran dominio del lenguaje the author has an excellent command of the language
    ser del dominio público to be public knowledge
    3
    (ámbito, campo): el dominio de las letras the field o sphere of letters
    entra en el dominio de la fantasía it moves into the realms of fantasy
    B
    1 ( Hist, Pol) dominion
    2 dominios mpl (colonias) dominions (pl)
    C ( Inf) domain
    nombre de dominio domain name
    * * *

     

    dominio sustantivo masculino
    1


    b) (de idioma, tema) command;


    2
    a) (Hist, Pol) dominion

    b)

    ◊ dominios sustantivo masculino plural ( colonias) dominions (pl)

    3 (Inf) domain
    dominio sustantivo masculino
    1 (poder) control: tiene mucho dominio de sí mismo, he's very self-controlled
    2 (conocimiento profundo) command, grasp
    3 (ámbito, campo) scope, sphere
    4 (territorio) lands
    (colonias) colonies
    ♦ Locuciones: ser de dominio público, to be public knowledge
    ' dominio' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    absoluta
    - absoluto
    - contención
    - control
    - lastre
    - pública
    - público
    - señorío
    - garra
    English:
    astonishing
    - command
    - domain
    - dominion
    - excellent
    - mastery
    - out
    - preserve
    - realm
    - rule
    - self-command
    - self-composure
    - self-control
    - self-restraint
    - stranglehold
    - sway
    - control
    - dominance
    - hold
    - public
    - self
    - strangle
    * * *
    1. [dominación] control ( sobre over);
    la guerrilla tiene el dominio sobre esta zona this area is under guerrilla control;
    territorios bajo dominio romano territory under Roman rule;
    tenía al partido bajo su absoluto dominio he had the party under his absolute control;
    el dominio del partido correspondió al equipo visitante the visiting team had the best of the match;
    en ningún momento perdió el dominio de la situación at no time did he lose control of the situation;
    trata de mantener el dominio de ti mismo try to keep control of yourself
    2. [territorio] domain;
    un antiguo dominio portugués a former Portuguese territory o colony;
    la caza estaba prohibida en sus dominios hunting was forbidden on his land o domain
    3. [ámbito] realm, field;
    temas que pertenecen al dominio de la cibernética topics relating to the field of cybernetics;
    entramos en los dominios de la ciencia ficción we are entering the realms of science fiction
    4. [conocimiento] [de arte, técnica] mastery;
    [de idiomas] command;
    su dominio del tema his mastery of the subject;
    tiene un buen dominio del pincel she has a good command of the brush;
    para el puesto requerimos dominio de al menos dos lenguas the post requires mastery of at least two languages;
    tiene un gran dominio del balón he has great ball control;
    ser de dominio público to be public knowledge;
    era de dominio público que vivían separados it was common o public knowledge that they were living apart
    5. Informát domain
    dominio público public domain
    6. Der [propiedad] ownership, domain
    * * *
    m
    1 control;
    dominio de sí mismo self-control
    2 fig: de idioma command
    3 INFOR domain
    4
    :
    ser del dominio público be in the public domain
    * * *
    1) : dominion, power
    2) : mastery
    3) : domain, field
    * * *
    1. (control, poder) control / rule
    2. (conocimiento) command

    Spanish-English dictionary > dominio

  • 3 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

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